Special Issue

Nature Conservation 2009 — 1. 9. 2009 — Special Issue

Nature and the landscape in the Czech Republic and their adaptation to climate change

authors: František Pelc

In 2004, the Government of the Czech Republic adopted the document entitled National Programme to Abate the Climate Change Impacts in the Czech Republic(Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic 2004).

Recently, a further document – Climate Protection Policy in the Czech Republic (Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic 2009) has been prepared. It should effectively respond not only to new knowledge of the subject, but also to recent developments in climate protection in the European Union (EU) and at the global level. The document aims at both step-by-step greenhouse gas emission reduction and at mitigation of the climate change impacts in the Czech Republic (Zámyslický 2009). The Directorate of Nature Conservation and Landscape Protection at the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic has drafted a comprehensive strategy on adaptation measures in the landscape in connection with climate change as a basis for the above policy (Pelc 2009). The strategy is not limited to simple description of the possible impacts of current and expected climate change on the landscape as a whole and on its individual components, but also proposed the specific measures on how to cope with the chan­ging climate consequences for nature and the landscape in a reasonable manner in the Czech Republic. It is based, inter alia, on the recently adopted European Communities document, the White Paper (Commission of the European Communities 2009). We will present the basic approach of the strategy to readers bellow. It should be mentioned that despite recent huge development in ecological forecasting methods, moreover, the bellow assumptions could display some level of uncertainty.

The current state of nature and the landscape in the Czech Republic is determined by numerous factors. They include the geogra­phical position of the country, the specific relief, the surprisingly diversified bedrock, the clima­tic conditions and development in the last interglacial period that this part of the European continent has undergone and has been still undergoing. Similar to other areas on the Earth in the past century, human beings have had by far the greatest effect on the conditions, changes and trends in nature and the landscape. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) widely accepted scenarios predict that also the Czech Republic shall not avoid climate change affects in the future and that the impacts can be even greater than at the present time (Pretel 2009).

Projected climate change impacts

Forest Ecosystems

Climate change can substantially influence forest communities and forest growths, both from a point of view of their conservation and management.

In this respect, mainly forest consisting of mostly the Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and managed in compartments at lower and me­dium altitudes, mostly outside the Norway Spruce natural range are at the highest risk. They have been influenced by a number of eco­nomically significant organisms (pests) affec­ting all forest age classes (stages). Although the woody plant species composition of forests in the Czech Republic has been gradually chan­ging, with an increasing proportion of broad--leaved deciduous species and the European Silver Fir (Abies alba) instead of spruce, the current proportion of spruce (approx. 53 %) has been high. The process results into high risk of rapid spontaneous decay in unsuitable spruce plantations outside the Norway Spruce’s natural range and of further decline in their ecological and mainly timber production functions.

From a point of view of the climate change, the most important risk factor for forest ecosystems is drought, causing a number of types of decline. Drought, inter alia, destabilizes spruce stands in gleyzated habitats as well as in those affected by water. Any decrease in the water level causes drying out in such areas, resulting in infection by layered red root rot and a reduction in the spruce stand resistance to the wind. Damage to the wood in spruce stands by the fungus Annosum Root Rot (Heterobasidion annosum) is called layered red root rot. The tree species weakening also stimulates other economically important species (particularly, bark and wood boring insects) and other groups of organisms (particularly endophytic fungi, which can be manifested as vascular mycosis, mostly borne by bark and wood boring insects).

The risk of deterioration/collapsing and consequently large-size logging of plantations threaten the forest climatic function (cooling and humidifying the air, increasing temperature differences during the day). In addition, the water management function of forests could be seriously damaged because the above processes reduce the ability of forest stands to maintain water in the landscape, leading to rapid run-off of even smaller storm water, often connected with extensive erosion. On the deforested land, the soil surface is rapidly dried out, followed by wind erosion of the upper humus layer, and rapid washing out and mineralization of the whole humus layer. Simultaneously, soil fauna and micro-organism communities have been affected which can cause, inter alia, loss of species richness (the number of species). At newly formed open sites, the process substantially makes difficult skiophyte broad-leaved deciduous tree species and European Silver Fir regeneration. Natural broad-leaved deciduous tree species regeneration is also limited by the rapid and extensive expansion of forest weed and bracken competing with tree species and also to a great extent, by overpopulated ungulate game.

Thus, it is obvious that carbon stock stabilization in the forest stand biomass is quite more important than well-intended attempts to ma­ximize this carbon sink. A gradual change in the forest structure is necessary for carbon capture and storage in forest ecosystems, particularly an increase in the proportion of broad-leaved deciduous tree species at the expense of the Norway spruce. These efforts can result into a slight reduction in the growing-stock volume; however, from a point of view of the carbon balance, this will be balanced by the higher wood density in broad-leaved deciduous tree species. Because of the greater proportion of broad-leaved deciduous tree species, carbon accumulated and stored in the soil will be present to a greater degree in the more stable mineral layer, while its proportion in the labile humus layer will be reduced.

From a point of view of the carbon balance as well as of other aspects, questionable pine or floodplain forest stand regeneration using ploughing or burning lopping and the brushwood just in the forests and on the other hand, assumptions of systematic utilization of residual forest biomass despite the habitat character and trophy should be considered in more details.

Because of the hardly predictive climate development, it is unambiguously desirable to manage forests with maximum involvement of natural processes, towards higher species and spatial diversification of forests, taking into account the potential natural forest composition. Also in the Czech Republic, applying more undergrowth/underwood and selective forest management measures should be a response to the above requirement. Due to their dynamics, ecological plasticity caused by the composition and structure and viability, only such forests will be able to sufficiently adapt to climate changes and at the same time, provide all the substantial functions, from producing wood as a renewable source, biological-ecological functions to ability to provide humans with irreplaceable environment for recreation and leisure. In other words, such forests will be able to provide humans with many ecosystem services (MA 2005, Schröter et al. 2005, Luque & Kallio 2009). Under such conditions, model natural forest composition should not be considered as a dogma, but as the important guidance in reasonable forest management.

For wise forest management or implementing the specific management measures in the Specially Protected Areas, it is necessary to establish a representative network of forests for a long time left to spontaneous development and to monitor natural processes, changes in structure and biological diversity and other forest community characteristics and features there. We do not make it without the above knowledge, and Specially Protected Areas, particularly National Parks and National Nature Reserves, should logically play a crucial role within the process. In other words, leaving some forest stands to natural processes in Specially Protected Areas has to be not a denounced or on the other hand glorified alternative of managing the areas, but a rationally and meaningfully well-founded integral part of it.

Aquatic ecosystems

The climate change effects on the water ba­lance in the landscape will be manifested particularly in more frequent extreme hydrological events, such as floods and droughts, in changes in the surface- and groundwater regimes, in the overall stock volumes of water reservoirs and last, but not least, in the surface water quality.

As there will be a reduction in the spring melt run-off and year-round basic run-off, the stocks of water in the soil will decrease in the summer and autumn months, there will be an increase in the frequency and intensity of lack of soil humidity (agricultural drought) and a reduction in water supplies as a consequence of increased demand for water (hydrological drought), with a reduction in the overall run--off from river basins in the course of the year. On the other hand, there will be less snow due to higher temperatures in winter. The reduction in the overall run-off and drastic reduction in minimal flow rates will result in the situation when minimal ecological flow rates will not be maintained in water courses. The current maximum spring run-off will shift to winter, with the greatest probability of floods.

Changes in flow rates in rivers will affect the water quality, water transport network and irrigation in agriculture. If the air temperature and amount of precipitation increase, the water quality need not change; otherwise, there could be a reduction in the amount of oxygen and greater nitrogen mineralization in aquatic ecosystems. As the water temperature increa­ses, the biological activity of algae and blue-green algae, also known as cyanophytes, increases, forming the well-known water bloom. Thus, an increase in air temperature will cause increased water reservoir eutrophication (as a consequence of increased nutrient level in the environment) and a reduction in the self-purification capacity of water courses.

In valley floodplains, the reduction in the water level in water courses will be connected with a reduction in the groundwater level, with smaller addition of moisture to the soil through capillary rise of groundwater and a decrease in the water sources yield. There will be a good-quality drinking water scarcity in some areas in the Czech Republic, with continuous drying out of the landscape and loss of vulnerable wetlands, particularly small ones (EEA 2009).

The climate change will have a smaller impact on the run-off in relatively resistant mountain ecosystems with large total precipitation and in water basins with large accumulation capacity, e.g.in the Water Natural Accumulation Protected Areas WNAPA). The greatest impacts will most probably be recorded, and have been recorded, in dry areas, where even a potential slight increase in precipitation cannot balance out the increased air temperature (in Bohemia, the Rakovník and Žatec Regions are examples). Affects on the intensively managed agricultural landscape will be particularly pronounced in dry areas. Intensively managed ecosystems will suffer in summer from long-term lack of moisture, with a consequent increase in the need for artificial irrigation. On the other hand, run-off will be rapid during heavy rains and rainstorms. Soil erosion could significantly increase compared to the present time.

Because of the substantial reduction in the minimum flow rates in summer and autumn, serious problems can be expected in water quality in water courses below the waste water treatment plants admissions. The predicted lower dilution of waste waters would be manifested in the oxygen regime, in the above-mentioned increased eutrophication and in water contamination caused by micro-organisms. The greatest impact on water quality can be expec­ted in small water courses, into which waste waters are discharged, especially if they are not well treated. We assume that technological and financial problems can occur in the treatment of raw water and in the quality of the drinking water produced.

Responses to the above and other risks are crucial. We are sure of that consideration of building many new water reservoirs is not a systemic solution which will contribute to avoiding or minimize the given risks. On the contrary, we assume that only the conceptual change in land use in river basins which includes a huge range of landscape management measures, from wetland and water courses restoration and supporting ecostabilizing infrastructure in the agricultural landscape to managing semi-natural forests can be the systemic contribution to the necessary stabilizing water regime in the landscape as a whole, applying the holistic approach. Only in the specific reasoned cases, building a new water reservoir can be a complement of the above range of measures, but not of the heart of the matter.

Agoecosystems

Climate changes will probably cause a reduction in the primary production by vegetation cover, increased decomposition of soil organic material, and consequent reduction in microbial soil activity and in plants’ greenhouse gas intake. As a feed-back, the processes will promote subsequent desertification (land de­gradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climate variation and human activities. In other words, it is a process of land degradation by which formerly fertile land is converted into desert, semi-desert or similar, water-deficient habitat). On the other hand, an increased CO₂level in the atmosphere may result in increased sources for photosynthesis and subsequently, in increase in the effec­tiveness of water consumption by plants.

Acceleration of the onset of the individual phenological phases and prolonging of the ve­getation season period will also play an important role. A phenological phase is a usually annually occurring stage observable in the indivi­dual organism, e.g.blossoming of vascular plants: the biological event is usually tied to climatic conditions. Thus, the favorable effects of the projected changes could include increased crop harvests in most of medium latitudes. However, this will depend on providing sufficient moisture and preventing diseases and pathogens, which will be, on the other hand, very difficult. The average crop yield will be affected particularly by changes in the temperature and precipitation and also by an increase in the atmospheric CO₂ level. The change in the sum of evaporation and transpiration in a particular area (evapotranspiration) will be influenced particularly by a change in the air temperature and also in the Leaf Area Index (LAI) of vegetation. LAI is the ratio of the total upper leaf surface of vegetation divided by the surface of the land on which the vegetation grows.

In grassland ecosystems, it can be assumed that precipitation is determined by the compe­ting relationships among grasses, species from the legume family (Fabaceae) and other species: greater precipitation supports the grass growth. Grassy vegetation in dry habitats will be more resistant to smaller amounts of precipitation. Meadows with higher species richness will cope more effectively with dry periods than grasslands characterized by lower species richness. The nitrogen cycle will not be affected only by differences in the plant biomass production at various altitudes, but also by differences in the effectiveness of nitrogen utilization by vege­tation for various availabilities of water.

In the Czech Republic, managed artificial ecosystems will be particularly threatened at lower altitudes, where the water availability has been a limiting factor and where substantial occurrence of present and newly migrating pathogens can be expected. As a consequence of prolongation of the vegetation season and higher temperatures, changes will probably occur in the composition of flora and fauna communities, and assemblages with the extinction of vulne­rable wildlife species living in agro-ecosystems or the loss of the some habitats.

Management measures have had a substantial impact on the maintaining water in the landscape. It is quite clear that enormous tracks of land, particularly arable land, sown with wide-row crops (maize Zea mays, sunflower Helianthus annuus, etc.) in a single partial river basin are the main reason for increased surface run-off and wash-out of the soil and are the main cause of floods. Far less water without a greater amount of sediments runs off areas covered by winter and perennial crops and even by permanent grasslands than from areas of the same size covered by wide-row crops. Climate change may exacerbate the phenomena described.

Urban ecosystems

The urbanized landscape includes not only urban and rural built-up areas in the built-up areas of settlements, industrial areas or recreational objects, but also highways, roads, railways, shipping canals, man-made water re­servoirs and also mining and devastated areas including brownfields.

In contrast to other types of cultural and natural landscape, the urbanized landscape exhibits a great many differences: at least the large proportion of paved residential, transport and industrial areas should be mentioned. The substantial proportion of the paved areas influences the overall microclimate within a particular area and causes overheating of the surface, higher air temperature, elevated evaporation, rapid run-off of precipitation water, dustiness, etc.

Particularly in populated and built-up areas, the increase in temperature could be clearly mani­fested in the internal microclimate in cities. The urban heat island (the term for the warmer climate of cities caused by release of heat by human activities: it is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas) increases and the increased temperature then causes drying of surface and groundwater. The inability of the overly dry soil to accept large volumes in single downpours or rainstorms causes accelerated run-off of precipitation water from the area. Similar to other main ecosystem types, some urban areas will be exposed to more frequent and longer periods with minimum or no precipitation and buil­t-up areas along rivers will more frequently face the affects of destructive floods.

In the highly damaged landscape, e.g.by mining activities, favourable changes can be achieved by properly performed restoration measures. However, under the present conditions, the potential for favourable changes in the continuously built-up landscape is rather limited. Consequently, measures mitigating the climate change impacts on the urbanized landscape can have only a limited effect. Therefore, greater attention should be paid to adaptation measures in the above areas.

The described phenomena have been to a greater or lesser degree occurring in the urbanized landscape. However, as climate chan­ges progresses, it can be expected that their intensity will increase, together with a shift in their occurrence.

Climate change and biodiversity

So far, we have been dealing with the current and projected climate change impacts on biological diversity at the ecosystem level. The impacts of climate changes on wildlife populations and species in the Czech Republic are summarized by Plesník (2009).

Measures promoting the landscape adaptation to projected climate changes

It is apparent from the above review that some of the climate change impacts, e.g.more frequent and longer droughts, will be manifes­ted in all the main ecosystem types in the Czech Republic. Nonetheless, the individual land use types in the Czech Republic will require somewhat different approaches in coping with climate change. The strategy of the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic on adaptation measures in the landscape in connection with climate change will include a detailed proposal for specific measures that could support nature and the landscape in the Czech Repu­blic to adapt to the projected climate change. These are mostly not completely revolutionary procedures and it is rather necessary to consistently implement them. Some of them are described in box below.

Legal and financial instruments for adaptation of the landscape to climate change

The drafted document analyzes the existing legislation particularly that related to forests, land-use planning, nature conservation and landscape protection, agricultural land resour­ces protection, water source protection and the air quality control, from a point of view of the on-going and expected climate changes. If we want to response to the projected changes in the landscape in an effective and reasonable way, it will be necessary to amend the current Czech Republic’s legislation. A detailed description of the financial mechanisms confirmed that for implementing adaptation measures, it has at present been possible to use the relevant programmes and schemes of the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic and the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic, as well as the European Community’s funds. Nonetheless, these subsidy schemes have to undergo certain modifications.

Conclusions

Healthy, well functioning ecosystems, with natural levels of biodiversity, are usually more able to resist and recover more readily from extreme weather events than degraded, impo­verished ecosystems.They are also usually better able to provide humans with ecosystem services. Reasonable restoration of degraded ecosystem also is an important element to adapt the landscape to climate changes. With respect to the climate change adaptation at the ecosystem and landscape level, early action may be more effective and less costly than inaction or delayed action (Stern 2006, European Communities 2008, Heller & Zavaleta 2009).

For implementing timely appropriate and effective adaptation measures within the landscape, ecosystem-based adaptations can be applied. Ecosystem-based adaptation is the use of sustainable ecosystem management activities to support planned adaptation. Ecosystem-based adaptation, inter alia, identifies and implements a range of strategies for the management, conservation and restoration of ecosystems to provide services that enable people to adapt to the impacts of climate change. It aims to increase the resistance and resilience and reduce the vulnerability of ecosystems and people in the face of climate change. Ecosystem-based adaptation is most appropriately integrated into broader adaptation and development strategies. In addition, it can be applied at the pan-European, European Union, national, sub-national and local level. Nevertheless, like all adaptation activities ecosystem-based adaptation is not without complexity and risk. Hence, it is important that decisions to use ecosystem-based adaptation be subject to risk management procedures and cost-effectiveness. In addition, the implementation of ecosystem-based adaptation requires an adaptive management approach, which allows management adjustments in response to changes in external pressures, and uncertainty in ecosystem functioning (UNEP 2009).

J. Plesník is Adviser to Director at the Agency for Nature Conservation and Landscape Protection of the Czech Republic.

F. Pelc is Deputy Minister of the Environment of the Czech Republic.